The last stop in my trip to India was Bangalore. Bangalore is the third largest city in India. Bangalore is known as the Silicon Valley of India, due to the rampant IT industry there. It is one of the most prominent cultural and economic hubs in India. Bangalore is truly a beautiful city. However, it is notorious for three things: traffic, frequent power outages, and severe water scarcity.

Let’s talk water – Almost all of the city’s water supply comes from the Cauvery and the Arkavathy Rivers. The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) supplies approximately 900 million liters of water daily. However, the demand of water exceeds 1.2 billion liters. Many people once relied on the lakes to suffice their water needs. Most of the lakes of Bangalore are man-made, constructed for the purposes of drinking water, irrigation and fishing. Currently, the lakes in Bangalore suffer heavy amounts of pollution. The Greater Bangalore region once had 400 lakes. Now there are only around 93.

One lake that has suffered greatly from pollution is the Bellandur Lake. The Bellandur Lake is located in East Bangalore and spans an area of 960 acres.  The Lake was once used a main source of water for the people of Bangalore. Water was used for irrigation, fishing, and for household matters, including drinking, washing, and cleaning. Until the 1970s, people in 18 different villages depended on the Bellandur Lake for their everyday needs. The lake has been greatly affected by the rapid urbanization that has been occurring in Bangalore. It has been negatively impacted by domestic and industrial pollution, the destruction of wetlands and the changes in the land usage surrounding the lake. Unplanned urbanization along with unchecked industrial, domestic, and commercial development caused the lake started to suffer greatly.

Currently, a large portion of the lake is covered in weeds and fields. The water in the lake is greatly polluted. There is no aquatic life within the lake. The stench emanating from the lake is beyond foul. At the outlet of the lake, heavy foam from an excess of industrial effluent can be seen.

Heavy foaming in the Bellandur Lake caused by an excess of industrial effluent

The Bellandur Lake is connected to the Agara Lake through a stormwater drain. Bangalore consists of a series of interconnected lakes. The Agara and Madivalla connect to the Bellandur Lake. The outlet of the Bellandur connects to the Varthur.  The lakes are connected by an extensive stormwater drainage system. The system once carried water, however, now it carries sewage. The Bellandur Lake is located in one of the three main valleys of Bangalore, known as the Koramangala and Challagatha Valley. Due to its location, the lake has been used to direct a large portion of Bangalore’s sewage. Currently, the BWSSB has set up three sewage treatment plants with a total capacity of 248 MLD. However, only 110 MLD of the total capacity is actually utilized.  According to the BWSSB, by 2021, the volume of sewage produced by the city will be 359 MLD; by 2036, the volume will be 416 MLD. Already, urbanization and the flux of sewage into the lake have led to eutrophication. An increase in the volume of sewage will only lead to the lake’s further demise.

A major problem exists within the stormwater drains. There is so much pollution within these drains. Untreated domestic waste and industrial effluents are dumped straight into them. The pollution in the drains is directly transferred into the lakes. The pictures below show the pollution accumulating within these drains.

Garbage piling up inside of the stormwater drains

Waste accumulating near an inlet of the stormwater drain

The lakes were once able to serve as natural wetlands, treating the wastewater that flowed into them from the stormwater drains. However, the amount of pollution in these drains exceeds the remediation capabilities of the lakes. The main problem exists in the lack of a strictly enforced waste disposal policy. Punishments should be given to those who are polluting the stormwater drains and the lakes. The citizens of Bangalore should be made aware of the amount of pollution entering the drains and also educated on proper waste disposal techniques, including recycling. Industries polluting the lakes should be fined heavily. Also, the BWSSB should work to increase the capabilities of their treatment plants.

There are various government bodies that are responsible for the Bellandur Lake, including: the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP), the BWSSB, the Minor Irrigations Department (MID), and the Lake Development Authority (LDA). The lake is located in the jurisdiction of the BBMP. The BBMP is the civic corporation that governs Bangalore. It is responsible for the maintenance of the storm water drains that lead into the lake. The BWSSB is responsible for properly regulating the sewage that enters the lake. The MID has ownership of the lake. The LDA is entrusted with maintaining and preserving the lakes in Bangalore.  These organizations should work together to help preserve the lakes and stormwater drains.

There have been many pleas and enquiries to the government of the Bangalore to help remediate this situation. However, no substantial progress has been made. A strong commitment to restoring the Bellandur Lake and cleaning the stormwater drains must be taken.

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Reports of recent flooding in southern China have claimed the torrential rains to be the most severe in scope and damage since 1998. As of July 28^th, an estimated 2.9 million people have been relocated, and economic damages have climbed to $3.354 billion. In addition to reports of on the natural catastrophe however, the China Daily, China Post, and Reuters have also observed that the Three Gorges Dam is facing its biggest challenge to date: withstanding and ameliorating the flood waters in the region. Officials are currently expressing concern that a number of dikes in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangze River are susceptible to damage from the accumulating water pressure. Three Gorges Dam engineers have opened three sluice gates to “discharge some 32,000 cubic meters of water per second and another sluice gate to release floating objects.”

Engineers are opening sluice gates of the Three Gorges Dam in response to recent flooding in southern China

The Three Gorges Dam was originally proposed for construction in 1919 by Sun Yatsen as a major source of hydroelectric power on the Yangtze River. Nearly 90 years later, in 2008, the dam was completed, setting world records as the largest electricity-generating plant of any kind. In addition to this massive engineering feat however, has come much controversy. In 2007, the New York Times reported that the project set records not only as the largest power plant in the world, it is also the largest dam, the largest consumer of dirt, stone, concrete and steel ever and has even caused the one history’s largest human resettlement programs. With the official announcement to construct the dam in 1992, came an onslaught of “unusually visible domestic opposition”. Concerns ranged from the fully scientific to the social problems that the construction of such a large structure would create.

Below I have provided a brief summary of some of the concerns people have raised against the dam: (in no particular order)

1. Accumulation of concentrated regional water pollution from surrounding areas

The Three Gorges Dam serves as a giant reservoir that stores water flowing from water basins in southern China, which are infamous for being heavily polluted with municipal and industrial waste, in addition to huge amounts of agricultural fertilizers. In 2001, the People’s Daily reported on the measures being taken to improve waste management strageties by the Central Government in the dam areas and upper reaches of the Yangtze. However, in 2004, the same newspaper released another report stating that many implementations had still not taken effect, including the closing of many small industrial enterprises that grossly surpass wastewater effluent standards, such as the paper and leather industries. The report stated that of 242 large-scale enterprises in the area, 227 also failed to meet standards.

2. Ecological disruption for hundreds of native species

Damming the Yangtze River inevitably causes disruption for the hundreds of species that are native to the area, including the endangered Baiji River Dolphin whose only native habitat is the Yangtze River. Because of the dam, fish species are unable to reach their upstream spawning habitats, affecting their natural biological cycles. Other affected species include the Chinese Sturgeon, Chinese Tiger, Chinese Alligator, Siberian Crane, and the Giant Panda. Chinese law currently protects a total of forty-seven rare or endangered species in the Three Gorges Dam area.

The endangered Baiji Chinese River Dolphin, whose only natural habitat is the Yangtze River, may be affected by the Three Gorges Dam

3. Dislocation of millions of local residents and loss of cultural artifacts

A result of the flooding of 632 square kilometers of land (bringing the total surface area of the dam to 1,045 square kilometers), 1.3 million local residents had to be relocated to other areas. There have been many reports on the psychological, emotional, and economic effects of displaced residents because of the Three Gorges Dam construction. As the water level of the dam rose over 600 feet, entire villages, towns, and even cities were left completely underwater. Although the central government provided allocations for the involuntarily displaced residents, many had trouble in the transition from rural to urban life, many lost their livelihoods with their farmlands, and many suffered from psychological trauma as their ancestral homes of generations were lost. In many cases, fertile farmlands were swallowed up by the rising waters, and reapportioned land distributed to local farmers was by far inferior and difficult to cultivate than the original land. An estimated 1,300 archaeological sites are also reported to have been lost in the flooded area.

4. Silting

The Yangtze River (undammed) carries about 680 million tons of silt to the East China Sea every year, making it one of the most heavily silted rivers in the world. It is estimated that each year 0.5 billion tons of silt will be trapped behind the dam, decreasing the effectiveness of the dam to prevent flood control and increasing the height of riverbeds, and the possibility of secondary pollution from the release of harmful chemicals that may be carried with river silt.

5. Increased landslides and earthquakes

From the increased weight over the flooded area from the dammed water and accumulated silt.

6. The making of an obvious terrorist target

All these negative aspects and concerns over the dam however have not made it a complete failure though. The dam, the largest clean-energy power plant in the world, is a symbol and a realization of China’s commitment to reducing its dependence on coal. A shift from coal reliance will not only benefit China’s environment, it will also improve air quality and reduce acid rain in neighboring Japan and Korea. As China is the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gasses, and is expecting to have even greater energy needs as it continues to develop its economy, “going green” for fuel requirements is perhaps enough to outweigh the negative consequences of the dam.

In addition, the Three Gorges Dam has a positive effect on the navigation of the Yangtze River. Trade along the river has been reported to account for 80 percent of China’s inland shipping. Elevated water levels not only make it possible for larger ships to safely travel up and downstream, the dam also lessens the phenomenon of whirlpools that influence smaller local shipping companies. One local is quoted, saying: “The whirlpools were big back then. If your boat got caught in one, it would spin you around. Now the river’s easy to navigate. Honestly, a 15-year-old kid could steer a boat up it, no problem. There are no big waves anymore.”

The final major point that proponents of the Three Gorges Dam cite is that it will be able to ameliorate the effects of flooding of the area surrounding the Yangtze River. Beginning in the Han Dynasty, records show that in 2,300 years, there have been over 214 major floods in the area, averaging one every ten years. Almost like clockwork, the floods of 2010 are being called the worst since 1998, but now the difference is the presence of the largest dam ever built by man. The Three Gorges Dam has been estimated to be able to protect 15 million people and 1.5 acres of farmland. During flooding seasons, the water in the dam is regulated to a lower level to help receive floodwater from the surrounding areas. During dry season, the dam can also help mitigate the effects of drought upstream. Facing the current flood conditions of southern China, authorities are regulating the water levels in the dam to lessen the impact of the flood downstream.

A view from the Yangtze

Some relevant articles debating the strengths and weaknesses of the Three Gorges Dam include:

• Burton, Sandra. “Taming the river wild.” Time 19 Dec 1994.

• “Editorials: ASIA NEEDS DAMS: And yes-there are ways to minimize ecological damage” Asiaweek 15 July 1996.

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It’s been two weeks since I have arrived in India. Although I have spent most of my time in Chennai, I have had the opportunity to travel to several other parts of South India. Recently I visited Puducherry (formerly known as Pondicherry), a Union territory of India. Puducherry is one of the most popular tourist destinations in South India. It was under French rule until 1954. The city still retains much of the French influence – the entire layout of the city was planned to imitate French design, mainly in the grid pattern of the city. Colonial ambience of the city is still preserved. Puducherry contains many colonial buildings, temples, churches, historical monuments, and beautiful beaches. Most of the city has been well maintained and remains quite picturesque.

Unfortunately, the beauty of the city was immediately contrasted by the sight and the smell of the open sewage system that exists throughout the city. I was shocked to see that a city with such well developed infrastructure lacked a proper sewage system. The following photos show the open sewage system that runs throughout the city

Open sewer system running through the sides of the streets of Puducherry

Close up of the solid wastes accumulating in the open sewers

In addition to sewage, garbage also accumulates inside of the open systems

An open sewage system raises many environmental and public health issues. Sewage containing human wastes is the most dangerous material polluting the water. The main diseases transmitted through the polluted water are typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, and infective hepatitis. Canals containing waste water in Puducherry mix with various bodies of water. In a point where the waste water mixes with sea water, the total coliform count was found to be 475 and the fecal coliform count was found to be 130. This is indicative of fecal contamination creating a high risk of disease. This dire problem can be attributed to the lack of proper waste water treatment.

During the monsoon season or other periods of heavy rain, the sewage system often floods. Currently, flooding is experienced more frequently due to an increase of garbage clogging and overburdening the sewage system. The clogging of the drains creates conditions ideal for disease vectors to breed. During times of flooding, diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, filaria, viral fever, and brain fever are reported. In a place called Solai Nagar in Puducherry all of the sewage is directed into one canal. This canal has not been desilted in years. An excess of waste has clogged the canal, leaving sewage to stagnate in the roadside drains. The drains inevitably overflow during periods of rain. Reports of untreated waste from a nearby hospital polluting the drains have also been filed. Obviously the open sewage system is a pressing issue. Something must be done immediately to expedite the implementation of a proper sewage system within Puducherry.

The Puducherry Pollution Control Committee (PPCC) has devised a scheme to install an underground drainage system and proper waste water treatment facilities in Puducherry. The models are designed to mimic the Japanese solid waste management system. Currently none of the waste in Puducherry is treated, whereas in Japan, 100% of the waste is treated. There is a 70-80% municipal recycling rate in most parts of Japan. Japan has taken a firm stance on minimizing the amount of waste produced in the nation, in addition to maximizing recycling throughout. The current policy in Japan emphasizes an incineration/waste-to-energy plan as a main means of disposing of municipal solid waste. The citizens of Japan are educated on the benefits of recycling and proper waste disposal from a very young age. Almost everyone in the nation is committed to and enthusiastic about keeping Japan clean.

The amount of waste generated annually in Puducherry is projected to increase greatly by 2020. The PPCC has adopted a four pronged plan to most effectively implement the drainage system. The first phase of this plan consists of planning and organizing along with institution building. During this phase, the PPCC wishes to enhance the collection and transport of waste. The next phase consists of the expansion of the service area. In this phase, plans for the control and the protection from pollution of the dump site are included. The third phase consists of introducing the 3-R’s (reduce, reuse, recycle). In addition, social partnerships will be considered and developed. The fourth, and final stage of the PPCC’s plan consists of the total integration of the 3-R’s. In addition, further efforts to educate the citizens on a recycle-oriented and sustainable society, such as the one in Japan, will be made.

Unplanned development of Puducherry has created many environmental problems. These problems have ultimately lowered the standard of living in the city. Amenities that we consider basic, such as clean drinking water, proper drainage facilities for waste, and adequate sewage treatment facilities, are either scarce or non-existent there. There has been a great deal of environmental stress on Puducherry, including increased pollution and the loss of biodiversity. In addition, public health has been risked since there is an improper sewage system. Hopefully the government of Puducherry takes a strong commitment to implementing a closed drainage system. In order for Puducherry to continue to expand and further develop, proper waste treatment must be invested in. It is sad to see such a beautiful city be burdened by the lack of proper sewage infrastructure. Hopefully the Japanese model will serve to help Puducherry reach its full potential as a growing city.

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The proposed Safe, Clean, and Reliable Drinking Water Supply Act of 2010 includes over $2.25 billion in funding for San Joaquin Delta sustainability and repair projects, as well as billions more for statewide water storage projects. To many in Southern California regions like San Diego, the bond measure is fantastic –more funding in the water system means that water-scarce regions will enjoy more abundant (and cheaper) water supply. For many in Northern California regions like San Francisco, the bond measure is less appealing –the bond would make wet cities pay for expensive water projects that benefit dry cities hundreds of miles away. This kind of conflict is inevitable in situations where pooled resources are spent on different groups (or “special interests” in political terms).

Who should pay for whose water? (Image from www.city-data.com)

A full analysis of the bond and all its pros and cons is beyond the scope of this post, and perhaps such an analysis is impossible because the relationships and dependencies between different groups (i.e. the public and private sector, environmentalists and builders, the northern and southern residents) are often hard to identify objectively. Today, I want to look at a water issue that is closer to home and narrower in scope. Let’s look at the conflict over the Hetch Hetchy Valley reservoir in California’s Yosemite National Park. Studying a smaller water conflict allows us to circumvent the layers of complexity typical in a statewide water conflict and more easily see the details of a water policy debate.

The Hetch Hetchy Valley is a glacial valley in California’s Yosemite National Park. Essentially, it is a big rock bowl. John Muir visited the Hetch Hetchy valley in 1871 and later described the area as one of “Nature’s rarest and most precious mountain temples.” San Francisco would later dam the valley with the O’Shaughnessey Dam, completed in 1923. The once empty rock bowl is now filled with pristine water 300 feet deep.

The Hetch Hetchy Valley is now filled with pristine water 300 feet deep. (Image from Wikipedia)

From an engineering standpoint, the reservoir created by the O’Shaughnessey Dam is impressive. It is a notable project for the following reasons:

• The water from the reservoir is conveyed to San Francisco by gravity. The water conveyance system needs no additional energy inputs, unlike the system of pumps that brings San Joaquin Delta water to Southern California.
• Hydroelectricity generation from the O’Shaughnessey dam provides San Francisco with 20% of its electricity.
• The water from the O’Shaughnessey dam has “filtration avoidance” status; only minor treatment (addition of lime for corrosion control and chlorine for disinfection) is required before the city pipes the water to end-users.
• O’Shaughnessey Dam is large. It provides about 25% of the storage in the entire Hetch Hetchy Reservoir system.

From an environmentalist standpoint, the O’Shaughnessey Dam is a blight that has ruined part of Yosemite National Park. Old black-and-white photos of the Hetch Hetchy rock bowl before damming reveal a beautiful landscape. Groups like the Sierra Club and the Environmental Defense Fund support the idea of removing the aging O’Shaughnessey Dam and restoring the Hetch Hetchy to its former glory.

An artist's rendition of the restored Hetch Hetchy valley. (Image from www.hetchhetchy.org)

Removing O’Shaughnessey Dam, however, would require San Francisco to either find new water sources or cut its water use dramatically. Without the reservoir’s pristine water, the city would have to build energy-intensive water treatment plants to bring replacement water to drinkable standards. Furthermore, San Francisco would lose 20% of its electricity supply without generation from the dam.

The Environmental Defense Fund argues that because San Francisco is investing $3.2 billion in overhauling its water system, now is a “once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to reassess the need for the [O’Shaughnessey] dam.” The San Francisco Public Utility Commission considered removal of the dam and concluded that it would cost about $10 billion for its removal and for construction of new water substitutes. Production of additional electricity to treat lesser quality water and replace lost hydropower will have other environmental costs that may outweigh the benefits of restoring the Hetch Hetchy Valley.

The debate over the Hetch Hetchy Valley pits environmental interests against urban interests. Newspapers around the country call for California to restore the valley so that Americans can once again enjoy its natural beauty. Like the larger scale water bond disagreement in California, the disagreement over the Hetch Hetchy involves many views on how natural resources should be utilized in a region.

Should a city spend $10 billion to enhance a national park by restoring an environment to its natural state? Restore Hetch Hetchy, one of the leading organizations in support of removing the O’Shaughnessey Dam, says that water from “Tuolumne river water stored in the Hetch Hetchy valley of Yosemite National Park can be stored elsewhere and delivered without interruption to its end users.” Where, exactly, is elsewhere? While Hetch Hetchy may be restored, another area’s ecological system may be utilized in its stead. San Francisco needs to get its water from somewhere, after all.

Everything that city and state governments do affects groups differently. In California, investment in the San Joaquin Delta system benefits farmers in the central valley and residents in Los Angeles, but it threatens some endangered fish species and forces Northern Californians to pay for Southern Californians’ massive delta withdrawals. Also, there are environmental groups on both sides of the debate; the Nature Conservancy and Audubon Society support the bond while the Sierra Club and the Planning and Conservation League oppose it. The complexity of the California water bond debate is shaped by numerous individual examples such as the Hetch Hetchy conflict. Even the smaller, regional Hetch Hetchy conflict involves huge differences in geographic, hydrological, social, and special interests.

I doubt the O’Shaughnessey Dam will be removed any time soon, but groups will continue to lobby for the restoration of Hetch Hetchy Valley. Meanwhile at the macro-level, the state continues to struggle with the water bond debate. Unless the bond is delayed until the 2012 ballot, voters will have to pick a side by November this year.

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Bry Sarte, Executive Director at the Sherwood Institute, delivered a lecture yesterday at a special forum hosted by Stanford University’s Center for Sustainable Development and Global Competitiveness. In his talk, “Regenerative Urbanism: City-Scale Sustainable Water and Energy Strategies in China,” Bry discussed the Institute’s work in the Chinese city of Langfang to create and implement new policies in the area. The Sherwood Institute is working to create a comprehensive policy package for the city. The package will address urban water issues regarding stormwater, wastewater, rainwater harvesting, and general green design principles in water management. You can learn more about Langfang in this recent post on the Sherwood Engineers blog.

Stanford’s Center for Sustainable Development and Global Competitivenessbelieves that all future economic and business developments should be based upon environmental concern. They are working to fulfill this mission by promoting and teaching business strategies and leadership practices that will promote a sustainable and green environment.

The forum brought together speakers, academics, professionals and students to discuss opportunities and challenges in providing services in the environmental services sector in China.

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Hello all, I am currently writing from Chennai, India, in a town called Ayanavaram. Chennai has suffered chronic water shortage problems for many years. Under the administration of former Chief Minister of Chennai, Dr. J. Jayalalithaa (served from 1991 – 1996 and 2001 – 2006), an intensive rainwater harvesting scheme was developed in order to reduce water demands and increase supply. The Chennai Corporation, the civic body that governs Chennai, has adopted rainwater harvesting methods in order to raise the ground water level, prevent water stagnation, and divert water from being wasted. The Chennai Corporation started installing rainwater harvesting systems from 2001 in all Corporation owned buildings, including schools, hospitals, office buildings, community centers, bridges, parks, etc. In total, the Chennai Corporation installed 1,344 catchment structures in government owned buildings. Currently, building plans are only sanctioned if provisions are made for rainwater harvesting. After the implementation of such widespread rainwater harvesting systems, many of the water problems in Chennai have been solved.

Within the past couple of days, heavy rains have hit Chennai. Luckily, because of the great progress the government of Chennai made to alleviate the water crisis, rainwater catchment systems have been installed in the majority of urban areas. In fact, rainwater catchment systems have been installed in almost 350,000 residential, commercial, and institutional buildings. The apartment building where I am staying has a rainwater catchment system. Several pipes are attached to the roof that transport rainwater from the roof to an underground storage unit. The pictures below show how rainwater is harvested.

The monsoon season commences in South India in June. Within just half an hour of rainfall, the crowded streets became flooded. The picture below shows a street near where I am residing. As you can see, in such a short amount of time, nearly three inches of rain already collected on the surface.

Heavy rains cause immediate flooding in streets. Location: New Road, Ayanavaram, Chennai, India

Unfortunately, although there has been a great deal of investment in rainwater harvesting, there has not been that same commitment to utilizing stormwater and surface runoff. The Chennai Corporation has developed a storm water drainage system, however, it appears that much of the surface runoff remains stagnant until the water evaporates. The flat terrain of Chennai requires an effective stormwater drainage system in order to prevent water stagnation, which can facilitate the spread of diseases such as malaria. Just recently, construction has begun on a 21.4 km stormwater drainage system, on the Royapuram watershed, that will benefit nearly ten large areas. This project has been funded by the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). Under the JNNURM, 12 additional projects are under development in Chennai.

In today’s world, resources are limited. One of the most precious resources, that many of us take for granted, is water. The work done by the Chennai Corporation is extremely commendable. The rainwater harvesting initiatives have helped a good proportion of the 4.2 million people that live in Chennai gain access to clean water. However, many still do not have access to clean water. Further development must be made to expand and improve rainwater harvesting systems. In addition, a comprehensive plan must be devised to minimize the waste of stormwater and the amount of water runoff. Investment should be made in a greater stormwater drainage system. Chennai has already seen a great deal of improvement in meeting its water demands; hopefully with continued government support and public awareness, the entire population of Chennai will have access to clean water.

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So far, we’ve covered a variety of topics relating to water issues in China. If any of our readers have topic suggestions– anything you’d like to know more about regarding China, water, environment, policy, etc. Please leave a comment. I will do my best to address your interests!

Thanks!

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A Google search on rainwater utilization in Beijing mostly yields articles about the rainwater collection and purification systems that were built into Olympic venues the Bird’s Nest  and the Water Cube.  Indeed, such facilities demonstrated China’s increasing realization of its water scarcity issues and its recognition of a huge and largely unused resource: rainwater. However, what has been largely unseen in the English media is the development of the overall picture of rainwater utilization in China. What is the current state of the art? What has the history of the practice of rainwater utilization in China been up to now and what is its potential for the future?

Not only is China a water scarce country, water scarcity may be a significant factor in limiting the country’s development in the future. According to a 2009 report, of China’s 669 cities, 400 do not have enough water to meet distribution demands. In Beijing, the amount of water availablity per capita is less than 300 cubic meters, which is about one-thirtieth of the global amount. In many areas, especially in northern China (including Beijing), groundwater is overextracted in order to meet water demands, causing permanent ground subsidence damages. In order to reroute more abundant resources from the south to northern China, other large scale water diversion projects have been planned, but not without controversy . There have also been more and more demand-side campaigns to encourage residents, developers and industry to reduce water usage. In the eyes of some researchers and policy-makers however, one very obvious source of water has not been utilized to its full capacity: rainwater.

Raining outside the Olympic venue the "Water Cube", which is designed to collect enough water annually to supply 100 Beijing residents

According to rough calculations, if Beijing municipality covers an area of 770 hectares and the annual rainfall is 630 mm, then the amount of rainwater the city receives each year is about 485 million cubic meters of water. If Tianjin covers an area of 640 hectares, and its annual rainfall is 600 mm, then it receives 276 million cubic meters of water each year. Similar calculations yield that Jinan, Shandong Province would receive about 80 million cubic meters of rainwater annually. If a significant portion of this largely unused resource could be collected, we can see that its impact on water scarcity in northern Chinese cities could be a very important resource.

There are two types of utilization methods for rainwater. One is to actively create sites where permeable facilities replace impermeable pavements (for examples, large parking lots or public squares), so that rainwater can slowly infiltrate into the underlying aquifers, recharging the water levels. The other kind is what we think of as active rainwater harvesting. These facilities may be located on rooftops or built into buildings. The water is collected and stored and or treated for landscaping, waterscaping, toilet flushing, or industrial cooling or rinsing usages. To a certain extent, both active and passive rainwater harvesting techniques have been implemented in China.

Rainwater utilization first began to be explored as a resource possibility in the 1980’s. At that time, certain local governments began to notice their water scarcity problems and installed rainwater collection systems on buildings. However, because at that time such facilities did not have the necessary accompanying treatment or reuse systems, their effect was not practical. In the 1990’s, the Beijing Water Conservancy Office (Now the Beijing Municipal Water Conservancy Bureau ) headed up two rainwater research projects—“Research on Beijing Municipality Urban Rainwater Utilization Technologies and Rainwater Infiltration Expansion” and “Beijing Municipality Urban Buildings’ Increased Water Collection Measures Research”. These two research projects reflected the two branches of rainwater utilization and the results of the research helped propel advances in the efficiency lacking in previous attempts at rainwater utilization. The research included not only technological research, but economic, urban planning and policy analysis. By 1998, with funding from the Beijing Municipal Government, over 20 rainwater utilization projects were completed.

In the year 2000, The Beijing Water Conservancy Bureau launched a joint project with Essen University (Germany) to build 6 demonstrative projects under the title “Urban Rain Flood Control and Utilization”. The projects were carried out in several distinct representative areas, converting paved areas into more porous surfaces (for groundwater infiltration) and installing catchment facilities to collect water (for car washing, toilet flushing and landscape use). The results of the project indicated that although the rainwater could be successfully reused for other purposes, when the economic factors of installing active facilities (as opposed to the passive infiltration facilities) were taken into accout, the outcomes were not very practical. Because Beijing receives little rainfall for about half of the year, the active facilities laid unused for too much time for such a plan to be considered for widespread use. Also in the year 2000, for the first time, the Beijing Municipal government passed a law stipulating that in residential communities, water for fountains and waterscapes must be supplied with either reclaimed water or with rainwater to decrease the strain on the potable water supply.

Waterscapes in residential areas in Beijing are required by law to utilize reclaimed water or rainwater instead of tap.

In 2001, China’s State Council passed a document called “The Beginning of the 21^st Century Capital Water Resources Sustainable Utilization Plan” (21世纪初期首都水资源可持续利用规划), which states that in Beijing, rain water utilization should be an important measure to reduce the severity of water scarcity problems in the city. In 2003, The Beijing Municipality Planning Bureau and the Beijing Water Authority jointly passed an interim provision that all new construction, renovation, or expansion projects must go through rainwater engineering facilities design and construction. In 2004, the Standing Committee of the Beijing People’s Congress passed a law encouraging individuals and work units to utilize rain harvesting, infiltration, storage, and utilization strategies. In 2005, the fine for residential communities utilizing tap water for landscaping or waterscaping purposes was raised over 10 fold, showing the municipal government’s commitment to reclaimed wastewater and rainwater usage. Also in 2005, the Chinese Architectural Design Research Institute (中国建筑设计研究院) made a number of standardizations to rainwater utilization techniques.

Most recently, for the 2008 Olympics, the Water Cube and the Bird’s Nest were all equipped with the most modern rain harvesting and treatment technologies. The Bird’s Nest rain harvesting area is 22 hectares, and it is able to collect 67,000 cubic meters of water annually and treat 2000 cubic meters of water daily. The Water Cube has a rooftop rain harvesting system that collects 10,500 cubic meters of water annually and it can treat enough water to support 100 Beijing residents’ water usage for one year.

An article published in Chinese in 2009 purports 5 major reasons that China still lags behind developed countries in its extent of rainwater utilization. Firstly, the technology lags behind developed countries. Secondly, rainwater utilization facilities are not adopted on a large scale. Thirdly, relatively little legislation exists for the appropriate treatment of rainwater (for example, urban runoff may enter the same channels as municipal wastewater and be treated as such in the urban water cycle). Fourthly, there is little standardization of rainwater harvesting or infiltration techniques. Lastly, the “level of industrialization” around issues of rainwater usage is low.

“Level of industrialization” refers to the development of corporations that work in services and technologies relating to rainwater utilization. Such corporations include those that provide collection and treatment services for rainwater, those that are able to market and sell filtered or treated rainwater effluent, corporations that provide technology support, maintenance and repair services, and corporations that actually sell equipment and technology for rainwater utilization designs.

However, the future looks bright for increased rates of rainwater usage in China. In an article by the Worldwatch Institute, experts have already seen trends in rainwater utilization systems design by real estate developers in Beijing, probably in response to recent legislature that requires residential areas to used reclaimed water or rainwater for waterscapes. Currently, many rainwater consulting projects are done by academic institutions such as universities, institutes or national academies. In the future as legislations become more defined and implemented on a national scale, there will probably be more room for development for private environmental consulting agencies who wish to enter the market.

The information in this article is a summary of information gathered from the following sources:

李俊奇,邝诺,刘洋,何建平.北京城市雨水利用政策剖析与启示 (Analysis and Inspiration of Rainwater Utilization Policies in Beijing). China Water and Wastewater. 2008

胡继连,葛颜祥,李春芳.城市雨水资源化利用政策研究 (Urban Rainwater Utilization Policy Research). Shandong Social Sciences. 2009

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As a California resident, I am bombarded by drought alerts and pressure to conserve water. The California Department of Water Resources is warning us that 2010 could mark the 4^th consecutive year of drought. Even though the state suffers from a $20 billion budget deficit and carries over $70 billion in outstanding bond debt, the senate has put an $11.14 billion water bond measure on the November ballot –there is a strong sense of urgency in the state regarding our future water supplies.

While planning my summer vacation in Japan I asked myself a question: Does Japan suffer from domestic water shortages like California does, and why? It seems proper to compare California and Japan. Both have huge economies: California’s economy is the eighth largest in the world while Japan’s is the third largest in the world. The majority of Californians and Japanese rely on public water sources for domestic supply.

The two places are vastly different in ways that make comparison interesting. While both entities occupy nearly the same land area (California: 403,932 km², Japan: 394,743 km²), Japan’s population is over three times the size of California’s (California: 38.3 million, Japan: 128 million). The Tokyo prefecture alone touts a population of nearly 39 million while occupying an area equivalent to 10% of California’s area.

San Francisco, California’s densest city, is not nearly as dense as Kyoto, Japan’s densest city. Both pictures show an equally magnified square kilometer around city hall. Density data: http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/largest-cities-density-125.html

California has water supply problems primarily because 75% of its water originates in the top third of the state while 80% of demand is in the southern two thirds of the state. To sustain large populations in southern California, the state and federal government constructed dams and canals to boost water storage and transport. California has a storage capacity of nearly 50 billion cubic meters spread over 1000 dams. Japan is abundant in water resources; the country consistently receives one to two meters of rainfall each year. The country’s abundance of water has made it easy for people to obtain water without massive dams and canals. Japan sports a distributed network of over 2500 dams that have a total storage capacity of about 20 billion cubic meters –less than half the capacity of California’s dams.

Demand for water in Japan is also far lower than in California. California’s domestic water use is about 470 liters per capita per day (2005 USGS data). Japan’s domestic water use is one-third less at 314 liters per capita per day (2008 data). Why is the demand so different? One explanation is that city dwellers in Japan rarely need water for outdoor irrigation. Drive through the streets of a Southern California suburb and you will see lot after lot of lush front lawns (don’t forget the back lawn too!), flower gardens, and trees. The California Homebuilding Foundation estimates that over 50% of water demand in California homes goes towards outdoor landscaping. Outdoor use is less in Japan where population densities are often several times higher than even the densest California cities –there is no room for a lawn.

Japan devotes nearly twice the fraction of its water to industrial purposes as California does. Meanwhile, California invests more water into agriculture.

Note: Japan might suffer from water shortages if it were forced to produce its food and other water-intensive materials domestically. Currently Japan is less than 45% food self-sufficient so it indirectly consumes the water used to produce grains, oils, and meats its people import. Japan is also one of the world’s top textile importers. Global water shortages would affect food and textile production which would in turn affect Japan’s ability to feed and clothe itself. Not even the water-abundant Japan can escape the effects of global water shortages.

The Public Policy Institute of California estimates that California’s population will grow to 46.7 million by 2025. Current water supplies can barely satisfy the demands of today’s 38 million residents. A 23% increase in population will further stress the water situation in the state.

Meanwhile, Japan is predicted to experience a population decrease of 20 million people over the next 50 years. The country does not expect to have water shortages in the near future: Japan’s growth is not limited by its water supply.

Water supply currently limits growth in California. A cap on growth is not inherently bad, though. One can argue that investing billions in expanding water supplies will enable new growth, but further growth will encourage further billions to be invested in expanding water supplies. This creates a positive feedback loop that is difficult to escape: Growth fuels demand, new supply fuels growth. The nearly bankrupt state cannot sustain this cycle forever.

Like Japan, California’s population will peak. Unlike Japan, this peak will most likely be a result of water shortages. Japan is able to sustain a large population because its water resource is abundant and because its per capita demand for water is relatively low. California’s water supply is scarce and its demand high.

How do you think California can solve its water needs in the long term? What do you think about the new water bond on the November ballot? Feel free to comment.

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Howdy!

Yesterday was the first day of the 2010 Water Environment Federation (WEF) Collections Systems Conference. This year the conference takes place at the Phoenix Convention Center in Arizona.

Water professionals from around the country will gather here in the next few days to discuss water issues regarding rainwater harvesting, stormwater management, and wastewater treatment. Companies will also show off their water-related products (pumps, flow meters, and more!) in the exhibitor’s area. The conference promises to be an intellectual stimulating event packed with water workshops and lectures.

But I didn’t go for the conference –I went for the WEF Wastewater Challenge, a water treatment competition open to colleges around the country.  This year is the pilot year for this national competition.

I am part of the UC Berkeley Environmental Team.  Our system utilized two sand layers and a canister full of activated carbon and charcoal to treat water. Our system treated water with physical processes (filtration, adsorption, etc.); other schools added chemicals like bleach and hydrogen peroxide to adjust color and pH of the water.

Assembly

Before

After

Most of the teams that attended were from colleges in the Western United States, but one team flew in from as far as Ohio. Eight schools competed this year: Cal Poly Pomona, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, Colorado State, Ohio State, UC Berkeley, UC Irvine, University of Wisconsin, and Washington State.

Teams must design and build a portable wastewater treatment system to treat 10 gallons of simulated wastewater. Points are awarded for simplicity of design, innovation, treated water quality. Teams also submit a design paper and deliver a 10-minute presentation about their systems.

After hours of water treatment and team presentations, judges reviewed their scorings and announced the winners… Here is the top three:

1^st Place: UC Irvine

2^nd Place: Cal Poly San Luis Obispo

3^rd Place: UC Berkeley

Go Bears!

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